
By Maria Candida Luger
What distinguishes one ethnic group from another? Although it might seem straightforward, historian Walter Pohl explains that it is far more complex. ‘Many people still think that ethnic groups are biologically determined by their genes. A century ago, race and physical measurements were widely used to categorise people, often reinforcing racist ideologies. Since 1945, historians have tried to move beyond these ideas.’
Pohl has teamed up with Patrick J. Geary from the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, Johannes Krause from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and Tivadar Vida from the ELTE University in Budapest. Together, they combine expertise in archaeology, archaeogenetics, anthropology, and history to study the populations of Central and Eastern Europe between 400 and 900 AD.
Genetic differences
Their joint project, HistoGenes, funded by an ERC Synergy Grant, has already led to unexpected findings about migration, social structures, gender roles, and diet. For instance, the researchers conducted a genetic analysis of two eight-century cemeteries in Mödling and Leobersdorf, just 25 kilometres apart from each other south of Vienna. The burial sites appeared nearly identical regarding the grave goods, jewellery, and dress accessories. Yet, genetic analysis revealed a striking discovery: the people buried in these cemeteries were genetically distinct, challenging assumptions about ethnic continuity in the region.
The 150 graves in the Leobersdorf cemetery revealed an East Asian genetic profile, whereas the approximately 500 graves in Mödling contained a genetically mixed European population. This surprising finding demonstrates that cultural and genetic differences don’t always align, says Pohl. ‘The discovery challenges assumptions about ethnicity, proving that cultural, ethnic, and genetic integration do not always go together. Historians had long suspected this, but this study provides the first large-scale genetic confirmation.’
Migration period
The HistoGenes project examines populations across the Carpathian Basin and its surroundings, including parts of present-day Hungary, Austria, Germany, Slovenia, and Transylvania. The researchers focus on the Migration Period, a time of profound change in European history that spanned the centuries between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of medieval cities. During this era, various groups migrated to the region, established new power structures, and experienced significant political upheaval.
‘Historical sources mention many groups, possibly tribes, that migrated, founded kingdoms, and then suddenly vanished’, explains Pohl. ‘We wanted to understand how these people lived, what held them together, and what it meant for individuals to belong to these communities.’ However, since almost no written sources from these groups have survived, historians are left with many unanswered questions.
Solving mysteries
The people buried in the cemeteries south of Vienna belong to the Avar group, a nomadic people from the Mongolian steppe who migrated to the Carpathian Basin in the sixth century and built an empire there. The Avars were calvary warriors who travelled over 7 000 kilometres before settling in the region, where they ruled for centuries before mysteriously disappearing. Today, their presence is evident in the many cemeteries discovered in Austria and Hungary over the last few decades.
Much remains unknown about the Avars. The only historical accounts come from their enemies or neighbours. However, by analysing entire burial grounds - a rare find in archaeogenetics - the HistoGenes researchers gained valuable insights into these medieval communities. Their analysis allowed them to reconstruct entire family trees spanning six generations. By combining anthropological age determination, archaeological dating, and carbon isotopes (C14) dating, they gained insights into the cultural significance of biological kinship, marriage strategies, and demographic changes.
‘One key question is whether Avar men migrated alone, or if women undertook these long journeys as well’, says Pohl. Genetic analysis suggests that women also migrated. The predominance of East Asian DNA in the Leobersdorf cemetery indicates that ancestry played an important role in marriage. However, Pohl notes that the women came from different communities, suggesting that the Avars selectively married individuals with similar ancestry from across their empire.
New dimensions of the past
For years, Walter Pohl has focused on identity, ethnicity, and the formation of historical groups, aiming to avoid simplistic definitions that overemphasise genetics in discussions of ethnicity. At the same time, he and his colleagues are excited by archaeogenetics’ ability to reveal new dimensions of the past.
‘Archaeogenetics is developing extremely fast. It is fascinating to see new sequencing and genome analysis methods, alongside emerging bioinformatics tools that help us make sense of this data,’ he says.
Pohl and his co-grantees developed an innovative research design involving more than 50 researchers across various teams, with each discipline contributing to different project phases. Historians formulated key questions based on written sources from the 5th to 10th centuries, then worked with geneticists to determine which could be answered through DNA analysis. Archaeologists, in turn, identified the most promising sites for investigation. Just as identity and belonging are made up of multiple elements, the answers to these historical questions could only emerge from a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach.
Misused in public sphere
Pohl emphasises that this research does more than illuminate the past- it also offers critical insights into contemporary debates on identity and ethnicity.
‘When working on ethnicity and identity, we must consider their relevance in today’s world. These issues are often misused, politically and ideologically, to fuel nationalism, chauvinism, and racism. As historians, we have a responsibility to track how our research is interpreted—and sometimes misused—in the public sphere. We must remain vigilant, especially when genetics enters the conversation, as there is a risk of essentialising or reifying identities. This is where collaboration between disciplines is essential to prevent such misunderstandings.’
He concludes: ‘With nationalism on the rise, even in Europe, it is crucial to understand the relationship between genetic clusters, ethnic identities in historical sources, and cultural groups uncovered by archaeologists. This remains a critical issue for both the past and present.’
Biography
Walter Pohl is Emeritus Professor of Medieval History at the University of Vienna and fellow of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. He has also taught at Los Angeles (UCLA), Leiden, Budapest (CEU) and Ishevsk (Russia) and he was awarded the Wittgenstein Prize in 2004.
Johannes Krause is the Director of the Department of Archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. He is one of the founding directors of the Max Planck-Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean (MHAAM).
Tivadar Vida is the Director of the Archaeological Institute at the ELTE University in Budapest. He is an internationally renowned specialist on early medieval archaeology in the Carpathian Basin.
Patrick Geary is Emeritus Professor of Medieval History at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. He is an internationally recognized scholar of the Early Middle Ages and has published extensively on late Roman and post-Roman societies, ethnicity, social structures, and migration.